Contemporary Research Analysis Journal

Purpose: This theoretical paper explores domestic violence (DV) within the sociocultural framework of Esanland (Oto Esan[1]), Edo State, Nigeria. It aims to critically examine how entrenched patriarchal ideologies, and cultural norms shape the perception and perpetuation of DV in this rural context. 

Methods: Using patriarchal theory and the ecological Model, the study engages in a conceptual examination of DV as a culturally embedded phenomenon. It synthesizes existing literature, cultural narratives, and normative structures to interrogate how violence is legitimized and sustained within traditional gender hierarchies. 

Results: The analysis reveals that DV in Esanland is normalized through patriarchal traditions that reinforce male dominance and female subjugation. These cultural constructs obscure the severity of abuse and hinder effective intervention. The study highlights the absence of institutional accountability, inadequate policing strategies, and limited community-based resistance, which perpetuate the cycle of violence. 

Conclusions: DV in Esanland reflects broader ideological systems that require critical engagement and cultural reconfiguration. Addressing DV in this context demands a shift in gender norms, the development of culturally sensitive prevention frameworks, and the empowerment of marginalized voices.

domestic violence, Esanland, patriarchy, cultural norms, policing, gender

1. Abayomi, A. A. (2014). Sociological implications of domestic violence on children’s development in Nigeria. Journal of African Studies and Development, 6(1), 8-13. Retrieved from https://academicjournals.org/article/article1391177371_Abayomi.pdf
2. Abayomi, A. A., and Olabode, K. T. (2013). Domestic violence and death: Women as endangered gender in Nigeria. American Journal of Sociological Research, 3(3), 53-60. Retrieved from https://doi:10.5923/j.sociology.20130303.01
3. Adebayo, T., and Joseph, T. (2024, December 7) How Poverty, Insecurity Worsen Gender-Based Violence In Nigeria – UN, Others, Independence Newspaper Nigeria. Retrieved from https://independent.ng/how-poverty-insecurity-worsen-gender-based-violence-in-nigeria-un-others/
4. Adegoke, O. O., and Danbagai, N. L. (2024). Intimate partner violence (IPV) and positive life outcomes: narratives and emerging trends in Ibadan, south-western Nigeria. African journal for the psychological studies of social issues, 27(2). Retrieved from https://ajpssi.org/index.php/ajpssi/article/view/640
5. Aihie, O. N. (2009). Prevalence of domestic violence in Nigeria: Implications for counselling. Edo Journal of Counselling, 2(1), 1-8. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.4314/ejc.v2i1.52648
6. Amaechi, C.F., Emejulu, M. J., Okoduwa, A. K., and Obeto, M. (2024). Trend and Spatial Distribution of Rainfall: A Case Study of Edo State, Southern Nigeria from 1983 – 2023. NIPES-Journal of Science and Technology Research 6(4) pp. 126-135. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.14649294
7. Amole, T. G., Bello, S., Odoh, C., Aliyu, M. H., and Iliyasu, Z. (2016). Correlates of female-perpetrated intimate partner violence in Kano, Northern Nigeria. Journal of interpersonal violence, 31(12), 2240-2254. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260515573576
8. Antai, D. (2011). Controlling behavior, power relations within intimate relationships and intimate partner physical and sexual violence against women in Nigeria. BMC public health, 11(1), 511. Retrieved from http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2458/11/511
9. Antai, D. E. and Antai, J. B. (2008). Attitudes of women toward intimate partner violence: a study of rural women in Nigeria. Rural and remote health, 8(3), 1-12. Retrieved from https://search.informit.org/doi/abs/10.3316/INFORMIT.468581979827666
10. Anyogu, F. and Okpalaobi, B. N. (2017). Violence against Persons (Prohibition) Act 2015 and other existing gender legislation: a comparative analysis. Nnamdi Azikiwe University Journal of International Law and Jurisprudence, 8(1), 35-39. Retrieved from https://www.ajol.info/index.php/naujilj/article/view/156715
11. Awoniyi, S. (2019). Domestic Violence in African Societies and Implications for Development: A Biblio-Sociological Inquiry. Journal of African Interdisciplinary Studies, 3(7), pp. 61-76. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.46769/JAIS.01197214658360083
12. Basile, K. C., Smith, S. G., Kresnow, M. J., Khatiwada, S., and Leemis, R. W. (2022). The national intimate partner and sexual violence survey: 2016/2017 report on sexual violence.
13. Benebo, F. O., Schumann, B., and Vaezghasemi, M. (2018). Intimate partner violence against women in Nigeria: a multilevel study investigating the effect of women’s status and community norms. BMC women's health, 18(1), pp.7-17. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1186/s12905-018-0628-7
14. Bojeghre, S. O. (2024). 'The culture stands as a god': the role of culture in the experiences of Nigerian women living in England who have experienced intimate partner violence and abuse (Doctoral dissertation, London Metropolitan University). Retrieved from https://repository.londonmet.ac.uk/10481/1/16011288-Oghenerukevwe-Sophia-Mene.pdf
15. Bronfenbrenner, U. (2013). Ecology of the family as a context for human development: Research perspectives. Adolescents and their families, pp. 723-742. Retrieved from https://doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1994.tb00750.x
16. Camp, A. R. (2022). From experiencing abuse to seeking protection: Examining the shame of intimate partner violence. UC Irvine L. Rev., 13, pp. 103-154. Retrieved from https://escholarship.org/uc/item/6jr1d4sq
17. Cavalin, C. (2010). WHO Multi-country Study on Women's Health and Domestic Violence against Women. Initial results on prevalence, health outcomes and women's responses. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Lori-Heise/publication/288482508_Associations_between_violence_by_intimate_partner_and_women's_sexual_and_reproductive_health/
18. Charity, O. K. E. (2020). Child Labour and Human Right Violations: A Case Study of the Situation in Nigeria. University of Nicosia, Cyprus. Retrieved from https://repository.unic.ac.cy/archive/item/3419
19. Chesler, P. (2009). Woman's inhumanity to woman. United States: Chicago Review Press.
20. Dahlberg, L. L., and Krug, E. G. (2006). Violence a global public health problem. Ciência & Saúde Coletiva, 11, pp. 277-292. Retrieved from https://www.scielosp.org/pdf/csc/2006.v11n2/277-292/en
21. de Munck, V. C., and Korotayev, A. V. (2007). Wife–husband intimacy and female status in cross-cultural perspective. Cross-Cultural Research, 41(4), pp. 307-335. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1177/1069397107305445
22. Diala, J. C. (2024). Gendered Violence in Intimate Relationships in the Context of Law, Culture and Religion in Nigeria. Potchefstroom Electronic Law Journal, 27(1), pp. 1-36. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.17159/1727-3781/2024/v27i0a17746
23. Dibua, G. K. (2005). Gender, discourse and cultural taboos in a rural African society: The Esan people of Nigeria. University of Maryland, Baltimore County. Retrieved from https://www.proquest.com/openview/6db3b150e8aca5a5279c592d0f1a2897/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=18750&diss=y
24. Dobash, R. E., and Dobash, R. (1979). Violence against wives: A case against the patriarchy (Vol. 15). New York: Free Press.
25. Echeozo, J. F. (2023). Nigerian Nurses' Perceptions of Caring for Women with Female Genital Mutilation (Doctoral dissertation, Walden University). Retrieved from https://scholarworks.waldenu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=16724&context=dissertations
26. Edo State Government. (2013). Edo State Statistical Year Book. Benin City: State Central Office of Research and Statistics. Retrieved from https://www.nigerianstat.gov.ng/pdfuploads/Edo_state_SYB.pdf
27. Ehiakhamen, J. O. (2011). The Practice of Inheritance in Esan: the Place of the Female Child. Cultura, 8(1), pp. 49-62. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.2478/v10193-011-0003-2
28. Enato, L. S. E. (2018). African Value System and the Impact of Westernization: A Critical Evaluation of Esan Society in Edo State, Nigeria. African Journal of History and Archaeology, 3(1), pp. 10-26. Retrieved from https://www.iiardjournals.org/get/AJHA/VOL.%203%20NO.%201%202018/AFRICAN%20VALUE%20SYSTEM.pdf
29. Enato, L. S. E. (2021). Impact of European Contact on Traditional Marriage Institution and Family Structure of the Esan People of Edo State, Nigeria, up to 1960. Research Journal of Humanities and Cultural Studies 7 (2), pp. 21 -38. Retrieved from https://iiardjournals.org/get/RJHCS/VOL.%207%20NO.%202%202021/IMPACT%20OF%20EUROPEAN%20CONTACT.pdf
30. Eromonsele, A. (2018). Cultural tolerance in the face of universally held gender based violence: Implications on marriage institution among the Esans of Edo State, Nigeria. Africology: The Journal of Pan African Studies, 12 (2), pp. 19-26. Retrieved from https://jpanafrican.org/docs/vol12no2/Ola-12.2-3-Eromonsele-final.pdf
31. Esanland.org (2022). Retrieved from https://www.esanland.org/2022/11/esanlandorg.html
32. Fawole, O. I. (2008). Economic violence to women and girls: is it receiving the necessary attention? Trauma, Violence, and Abuse, 9(3), pp. 167-177. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838008319255
33. Fletcher, L. E. and Weinstein, H. M. (2002). Violence and Social Repair: Rethinking the Contribution of Justice to Reconciliation. Human Rights Quarterly 24(3), pp. 573-639. Retrieved from https://dx.doi.org/10.1353/hrq.2002.0033.
34. Fong, V. C., Hawes, D., and Allen, J. L. (2019). A systematic review of risk and protective factors for externalizing problems in children exposed to intimate partner violence. Trauma, Violence, and Abuse, 20(2), pp. 149-167. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838017692383
35. Frost, E. L., Fawole, O. I., Okedare, O. O., Salawu, M. M., Kiene, S. M., Augusto, C., and Reed, E. (2023). Money, economic abuse, and food insecurity: a qualitative study among young Nigerian women with a history of intimate partner violence. Adolescents, 3(2), pp. 330-342. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.3390/adolescents3020023
36. Fulu, E., Kerr-Wilson, A., Lang, J., Gibbs, A., Jacobson, J., and Jewkes, R. (2014). What works to prevent violence against women and girls. Evidence Review of interventions to prevent violence against women and girls Pretoria: Medical Research Council, 1, pp. 580-1589. Retrieved from https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/57a089a8ed915d3cfd00037c/What_Works_Inception_Report_June_2014_AnnexF_WG23_paper_prevention_interventions.pdf
37. Giles, J. R., Cureen, H. M., and Adamson, C. E. (2005). The social sanctioning of partner abuse: Perpetuating the message that partner abuse is acceptable in New Zealand. Social Policy Journal of New Zealand, pp. 26, 97. Retrieved from https://msd.govt.nz/documents/about-msd-and-our-work/publications-resources/journals-and-magazines/social-policy-journal/spj26/26-pages97-116.pdf
38. Goel, R. and Kumar, B. (2024). Psychological abuse and trauma in familial relationships and its aftermath: A review. Journal of Cardiovascular Disease Research, 15(4), pp. 337-358. Retrieved from https://www.academia.edu/117538195/PSYCHOLOGICAL_ABUSE_AND_TRAUMA_IN_FAMILIAL_RELATIONSHIPS_AND_ITS_AFTERMATH_A_REVIEW
39. Goldfarb, S. F. (2002). The Supreme Court, the Violence Against Women Act, and the use and abuse of federalism. Fordham Law Review, 71(1), pp. 57-147. Retrieved from https://ir.lawnet.fordham.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=3851&context=flr
40. Hamber, B. (2000). “Have no doubt it is fear in the Land” an exploration of the continuing cycles of violence in South Africa. Southern African Journal of Child and Adolescent Mental Health, 12(1), pp. 5-18. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1080/16826108.2000.9632364
41. Heise, L. L. (1998). Violence against women: An integrated, ecological framework. Violence against women, 4(3), 262-290.
42. Heise, L. L., and Kotsadam, A. (2015). Cross-national and multilevel correlates of partner violence: an analysis of data from population-based surveys. The Lancet Global Health, 3(6), e332-e340.
43. Higgins, A. (2020). Policing and the public: Understanding public priorities, attitudes and expectations. Insight paper, 1. Retrieved from https://www.police-foundation.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2010/10/insight_paper_1.pdf
44. Holt, S., Buckley, H., and Whelan, S. (2008). The impact of exposure to domestic violence on children and young people: A review of the literature. Child abuse and neglect, 32(8), pp. 797-810. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2008.02.004
45. Howell, K. H., Barnes, S. E., Miller, L. E., and Graham-Bermann, S. A. (2016). Developmental variations in the impact of intimate partner violence exposure during childhood. Journal of injury and violence research, 8(1), pp. 43-57. Retrieved from https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4729333/pdf/jivr-08-43.pdf
46. Ihunna, I. N. M. (2025). Female to female violence in Nigeria-unveiling the other perpetrator under the Violence Against Persons Act 2015. Orient Law Journal, 6, pp. 118-127. Retrieved from https://journals.ezenwaohaetorc.org/index.php/OLJ/article/view/3247/3385
47. Ikuteyijo, O. O., Zepro, N., Akinyemi, A. I., Probst-Hensch, N., and Merten, S. (2025). Socio-Economic Factors Influencing Intimate Partner Violence Among Adolescents and Young Women in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Scoping Review. Public Health Reviews, 45, pp. 1-10. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.3389/phrs.2024.1607041
48. Ishola, S. A. (2016). Domestic Violence: The Nigerian Experience. Asia-Africa Journal of Mission and Ministry, 13, pp. 3-16. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.21806/aamm.2016.13.01
49. Itua, P. O. (2019) Succession Under Customary Law in Nigeria. The Rule of Primogeniture versus the Deposition of a Traditional Ruler (Onojie) in Edo State: A critique of the Provisions of the Traditional Rulers and Chiefs Edicts No 16 of 1979. International Journal of Culture and History, 6 (2), pp. 17-77. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.5296/ijch.v6i2.15125
50. Jewkes, R. (2002). Intimate partner violence: causes and prevention. The lancet, 359(9315), 1423-1429.
51. Juliet Ike, T., Ezekiel Jidong, D., and Ebi Ayobi, E. (2023). Women’s perceptions of domestic, intimate partner violence and the government’s interventions in Nigeria: A qualitative study. Criminology and Criminal Justice, 23(5), pp. 791-811. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1177/17488958221128933
52. Krug, E. G., Dahlberg, L. L., Mercy, J. A., Zwi, A. B., and Lozano, R. (Eds). (2002). World report on violence and health. Geneva: World Health Organization. Retrieved from https://iris.who.int/bitstream/handle/10665/42495/9241545615_eng.pdf;sequence=1
53. Leeb, R. T., Lewis, T., and Zolotor, A. J. (2011). A review of physical and mental health consequences of child abuse and neglect and implications for practice. American Journal of Lifestyle Medicine, 5(5), pp. 454-468. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1177/1559827611410266
54. Lewis, R., Dobash, R. P., Dobash, R. E., and Cavanagh, K. (2000). Protection, prevention, rehabilitation or justice? Women's use of the law to challenge domestic violence. International review of victimology, 7(1-3), pp. 179-205. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1177/026975800000700310
55. Miccio, G. K. (2005). A house divided: Mandatory arrest, domestic violence, and the conservatization of the battered women's movement. Houston Law Review. 42, pp. 237-323. Retrieved from https://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handle=hein.journals/hulr42&div=17&id=&page=
56. Mshweshwe, L. (2020). Understanding domestic violence: masculinity, culture, traditions. Heliyon, 6(10), pp. 1-5. Retrieved from https://www.cell.com/heliyon/fulltext/S2405-8440(20)321770
57. Murphy, C. (2009). Men's intimate partner abuse and control: reconciling paradoxical masculinities and social contradictions. PhD thesis, Queensland University of Technology. Retrieved from https://eprints.qut.edu.au/31854/
58. Murray, C. E., and Crowe, A. (2017). Overcoming the stigma of intimate partner abuse. New York: Routledge.
59. National Population Commission (NPC) and ICF, (2019). Nigeria Demographic and Health Survey 2018. Abuja, Nigeria, and Rockville, Maryland, USA: NPC and ICF. Retrieved from https://dhsprogram.com/pubs/pdf/FR359/FR359.pdf
60. Naylor, B. (2010). Effective justice for victims of sexual assault: Taking up the debate on alternative pathways. The University of New South Wales Law Journal, 33(3), pp. 662-684. Retrieved from https://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handle=hein.journals/swales33&div=35&id=&page=
61. Nwazuoke, A. N., and Igwe, C. A. (2016). Worst forms of child labour in Nigeria: An appraisal of international and local legal Regimes. Beijing Law Review, 7(1), pp. 69-82. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.4236/blr.2016.71008
62. Ogbeni, S. (2024). African traditional religion, family and sexual immorality among Esan people of Edo State, Nigeria: A Critical Examination.  Studies in Religion, Society and Human Relations. pp. 543 – 551. Retrieved from https://acjol.org/index.php/books/article/view/7100
63. Ogundeyi, L. (2025). Patriarchy as a major driver of intimate partner violence against women in Nigeria: A qualitative systematic review, Public Health Institute Journal, 8. Retrieved from https://openjournals.ljmu.ac.uk/PHIJ/issue/view/242/120
64. Okenwa-Emegwa, L., Lawoko, S., and Jansson, B. (2016). Attitudes toward physical intimate partner violence against women in Nigeria. Sage Open, 6(4), pp. 1-10. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244016667993
65. Okojie, C. E. E. (1994). Gender inequalities of health in the third world. Social science and medicine, 39(9), pp. 1237-1247. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/0277-9536(94)90356-5
66. Okpara, C. J. and Okoro, J. T. (2024). Child Abuse: A Deliberate Act against the Best Interests of a Child. African Journal of Law and Human Rights, 8(1), pp. 38-46. Retrieved from https://ezenwaohaetorc.org/journals/index.php/AJLHR/article/viewFile/2858/2995
67. Ola, T. P. (2018). The challenge of climate change to rural dwellers in Esanland. International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Research, 4, pp. 41-53. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330997203_The_Challenge_of_Climate_Change_to_Rural_Dwellers_in_Esanland
68. Oladepo, O., Yusuf, O. B., and Arulogun, O. S. (2011). Factors influencing gender based violence among men and women in selected states in Nigeria. African journal of reproductive health, 15(4), pp. 78-86. Retrieved from https://www.ajol.info/index.php/ajrh/article/view/74796
69. Oluku, O., and Abasiekong, E. (2024). The Influence of Cultural Values on Intimate Partner Violence Against Women in Nigeria: Evidence from the Literature. Social Facts: FUOTUOKE Journal of Sociology and Anthology, 4(1), pp. 45-60. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.14921875
70. Olusegun, O. O. and Idowu, A. A. (2016). Child abuse in Nigeria: Dimension, reasons for its persistence and probable. Child and Family Law Journal, 4(1), pp. 1-23. Retrieved from https://lawpublications.barry.edu/cflj/vol4/iss1/2
71. Omidoyin, T. J. (2018). Violence against persons (prohibition) act 2015: A positive step to the eradication of domestic violence in Nigeria. Nnamdi Azikiwe University Journal of International Law and Jurisprudence, 9(1), pp. 39-51. Retrieved from https://www.ajol.info/index.php/naujilj/article/view/168804
72. Orukpe, W. E. (2022). Esanland, Edo State, Nigeria: An Ethnographic Study of the Origin of the Tribe and Tribal. Studies of Tribes and Tribals, 20(1-2), pp. 7-19. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.31901/24566799.2021-22/20.1-2.426
73. Osezua, C. A. (2013). Changing status of women and the phenomenon trafficking of women for transactional sex in Nigeria: a qualitative analysis. Journal of International Women's Studies, 14(3), pp. 14-30.  Retrieved from http://vc.bridgew.edu/jiws/vol14/iss3/2
74. Osimen, G. U. and Aisedion, R. (2021). Conflict resolution through African indigenous institutions: A study of the Esans in Edo state, Nigeria. Noun International Journal of Peace Studies and Conflict Resolution, 1(1), pp. 1-20. Retrieved from https://www.academia.edu/79998173/NIJPCR_VOL_1_NO_1_MARCH
75. Overstreet, N. M., and Quinn, D. M. (2013). The Intimate Partner Violence Stigmatization Model and Barriers to Help Seeking. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 35(1), pp. 109–122. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1080/01973533.2012.746599
76. Oyediran, K. A. (2021). Intimate partner violence in Nigeria. In International Perspectives on Intimate Partner Violence: Challenges and Opportunities. Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 85-95. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-74808-1_10#DOI
77. Oyediran, K. A., and Feyisetan, B. (2017). Prevalence and contextual determinants of intimate partner violence in Nigeria. African Population Studies, 31(1), pp. 3464-3477. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.11564/31-1-1003
78. Oyediran, K. A. and Isiugo-Abanihe, U. C. (2005). Perceptions of Nigerian women on domestic violence: Evidence from 2003 Nigeria Demographic and Health Survey. African journal of reproductive health, 9(2), pp. 38-53. Retrieved from https://utoronto.scholaris.ca/server/api/core/bitstreams/959d8545-3b1e-4dca-9d1d-30601a0c40fe/content
79. Para-Mallam, O. (2020). Sexual Violence Against Women and Girls in Nigeria. Academia Edu, 1(1), pp. 1-34. Retrieved from https://www.academia.edu/71061266/Sexual_Violence_Against_Women_and_Girls_in_Nigeria
80. Patience, O. G. B. O. (2024). Get rich fast’ syndrome and the ritual killings of women in south west Nigeria. African journal for the psychological studies of social issues, 27(3), pp. 294-308. Retrieved from https://mail.ajpssi.org/ajpssi/article/view/686
81. Sakifu, F. B. (2023). Domestic violence against women perspectives of cohabiting and married women on marriage sustainability in the Atwima Kwanwoma District, Ashanti Region (Doctoral dissertation, University of Education Winneba). Retrieved from  http://41.74.91.244:8080/handle/123456789/2190
82. Shajobi-Ibikunle, D.G., and Kassim, R.M. (2023). Domestic Violence: A Critical Review of the Violence Against Persons Prohibition Act (VAPP) 2015. In: Shackelford, T.K. (eds) Encyclopedia of Domestic Violence. Springer, Cham. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-85493-5_2175-1
83. Tjaden, P. G. and Thoennes, N. (2000). Extent, nature, and consequences of intimate partner violence. Research Report, Findings from the National violence against women survey. US Department of Justice, Washington DC. Retrieved from https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Extent_Nature_and_Consequences_of_Intima/n1lvtNyguyQC?hl=en&gbpv=0
84. Tsirigotis, K. and Łuczak, J. (2018). Resilience in women who experience domestic violence. Psychiatric quarterly, 89(1), pp. 201-211. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1007/s11126-017-9529-4
85. Turner, H. A., Finkelhor, D., Ormrod, R., Hamby, S., Leeb, R. T., Mercy, J. A., and Holt, M. (2012). Family context, victimization, and child trauma symptoms: variations in safe, stable, and nurturing relationships during early and middle childhood. American journal of orthopsychiatry, 82(2), pp. 209-219. Retrieved from https://www.childrenssafetynetwork.org/sites/default/files/FamilyContextVictimization_Leeb.pdf
86. Ungar, M., Ghazinour, M., and Richter, J. (2013). Annual research review: What is resilience within the social ecology of human development? Journal of child psychology and psychiatry, 54(4), pp. 348-366. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12025
87. UNICEF (2017). A Familiar Face: Violence in the lives of children and adolescents, UNICEF, New York. Retrieved from https://www.unicef.org/media/48671/file/Violence_in_the_lives_of_children_and_adolescents.pdf
88. Weissman, D. M. (2007). The personal is political-and economic: Rethinking domestic violence. BYU Law Review, 2, pp. 387-450. Retrieved from https://digitalcommons.law.byu.edu/lawreview/vol2007/iss2/3
89. WHO. (2012). Understanding and addressing violence against women: Intimate partner violence. Geneva: WHO. Retrieved from https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/WHO-RHR-12.36
90. WHO. (2013). Global and regional estimates of violence against women: prevalence and health effects of intimate partner violence and non-partner sexual violence. WHO Press, Geneva. Retrieved from https://iris.who.int/server/api/core/bitstreams/befdb859-99f5-4632-804d-04eb3fe8d940/content
91. Williams, J. (2000). From difference to dominance to domesticity: Care as work, gender as tradition. Chicago-Kent Law Review, 76, pp. 1441-1493. Retrieved from https://scholarship.kentlaw.iit.edu/cklawreview/vol76/iss3/4
92. Zamouri, I. (2023). Self-Defense, Responsibility, and Punishment: Rethinking the criminalization of women who kill their abusive intimate partners. UCLA Journal of Gender and Law, 30, pp. 203-270. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.5070/L330161550